Stoicism, founded by Zeno of Citium around the early 3rd century BCE, remains one of the most influential schools of thought in Western philosophy. Stoics like Seneca, Epictetus, and the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius emphasized virtue, self-control, and the importance of reason. They taught that individuals should seek to live in accordance with nature, accept what cannot be changed, and cultivate inner tranquility. However, around the same time that Stoicism was gaining popularity, several other philosophical schools emerged, each offering different perspectives on ethics, the nature of the universe, and the best way to live a meaningful life.

In this post, we’ll explore some of the key philosophical movements that existed alongside Stoicism, including Epicureanism, Cynicism, Skepticism, and the later development of Neoplatonism. These schools of thought presented alternative answers to some of the same existential questions Stoicism sought to address, providing a rich tapestry of ancient wisdom.

Epicureanism: Pursuit of Pleasure Through Moderation

Epicureanism, founded by Epicurus in the 4th century BCE, stands in stark contrast to Stoicism. While Stoicism emphasized self-control and finding happiness through virtue, Epicureanism taught that the ultimate goal of life is to achieve pleasure (defined as the absence of pain) and to cultivate a peaceful mind. Epicurus argued that pleasure is the natural goal of human existence, but he advocated for a refined and moderate approach to pleasure rather than indulgence.

At the heart of Epicureanism is the idea that pleasure, and particularly the avoidance of pain, is the highest good. However, Epicurus emphasized intellectual pleasures over physical indulgences. He believed that understanding the natural world and seeking to live a life free from the fear of gods and death were essential to human well-being. Epicureans also valued friendship as one of the most important sources of happiness, with a focus on forming relationships based on mutual respect and shared joy.

While Stoics believed in the necessity of aligning with the divine rational order of the universe, Epicureans rejected the idea of a personal, anthropomorphic god and sought tranquility through the pursuit of simple, natural pleasures. They argued that excessive desires lead to anxiety and that true happiness comes from moderation, self-reflection, and cultivating a life free from unnecessary fears.

Cynicism: Rejecting Society’s Conventions

The Cynics, particularly Diogenes of Sinope, offered a radical critique of society, wealth, and social norms. Diogenes and other Cynics embraced an ascetic lifestyle, rejecting conventional comforts in favor of a life of simplicity and self-sufficiency. Cynicism, as a philosophical movement, can be seen as an extreme form of rejection of materialism, vanity, and societal expectations.

Diogenes is perhaps the most famous representative of this school, known for his eccentric behavior and disregard for social conventions. He lived in a barrel or large jar in Athens, went about in rags, and even performed actions meant to shock the public, such as carrying a lamp in daylight and declaring that he was looking for an honest man. The Cynics believed that true happiness came not from wealth, fame, or status, but from living in accordance with nature and cultivating virtues like self-discipline, honesty, and independence.

While Stoicism also emphasized virtue and self-discipline, Cynicism took this to an extreme, advocating for the complete rejection of materialism and the pursuit of a life entirely free from dependence on society. Cynics saw wealth, luxury, and social status as distractions from the path to true virtue. For them, independence from societal expectations was essential to achieving genuine freedom.

Skepticism: Questioning Knowledge and Certainty

Skepticism, as a philosophical movement, emerged in the 4th century BCE with the teachings of Pyrrho of Elis. Pyrrho believed that certain knowledge was impossible to attain, and that the best approach to life was one of suspension of judgment (epoché). Skeptics argued that our perceptions and beliefs could never provide absolute certainty, and as such, we should refrain from making firm judgments or claims about the nature of the world.

Unlike the Stoics, who believed that reason could lead to certain truths about the universe and the proper way to live, the Skeptics maintained that human knowledge was inherently limited. They argued that by suspending judgment and cultivating mental tranquility, individuals could avoid the anxiety caused by false beliefs and uncertainty. In this way, Skepticism offered an alternative to both the Stoic quest for objective knowledge and the Epicurean pursuit of pleasure, emphasizing instead the importance of peace of mind through intellectual humility.

Skeptics were not nihilists or relativists in the sense of believing that nothing was true; rather, they believed that it was impossible to know for certain what was true. Thus, the wise person should adopt a stance of mental openness and refrain from dogmatism. In the context of daily life, this meant remaining indifferent to the pursuit of certainty and instead focusing on the cultivation of inner peace.

Neoplatonism: The Return to Metaphysical Absolutes

Although Neoplatonism emerged several centuries after the founding of Stoicism, it draws on many of the same intellectual currents. Founded by the philosopher Plotinus in the 3rd century CE, Neoplatonism sought to synthesize elements of Platonism, Aristotelianism, and other philosophical traditions, offering a more mystical and metaphysical framework for understanding the universe.

At the core of Neoplatonism is the idea of the One, an absolute, transcendent reality that is the source of all existence. According to Plotinus, the material world is a lower emanation of the divine, and human souls can achieve union with the divine through contemplation, asceticism, and philosophical reflection. Unlike Stoicism, which emphasized living in accordance with nature and focusing on virtue as the path to happiness, Neoplatonism was more concerned with the soul’s ultimate return to a divine, metaphysical source.

While Stoicism was focused on rationality and living in harmony with the natural order, Neoplatonism introduced a more mystical and transcendent view of human existence. For the Neoplatonists, the journey toward true happiness and fulfillment involved transcending the limitations of the physical world and returning to the divine source of all being.

Conclusion: Diverging Paths to the Good Life

The philosophical landscape around the time of Stoicism was rich and diverse, with several schools of thought offering distinct views on ethics, happiness, and the nature of the universe. While Stoicism emphasized virtue, rationality, and inner tranquility through acceptance of the natural order, other schools such as Epicureanism, Cynicism, Skepticism, and Neoplatonism provided alternative routes to the good life.

Epicureanism offered a hedonistic yet moderate approach to pleasure, emphasizing intellectual joys and the avoidance of pain. Cynicism rejected societal conventions in favor of a minimalist, ascetic lifestyle. Skepticism questioned the possibility of certain knowledge and promoted mental peace through suspending judgment. Neoplatonism, on the other hand, emphasized the soul’s return to a transcendent divine source, offering a metaphysical and mystical path to ultimate fulfillment.

Each of these philosophical movements provides valuable insights into human nature, the pursuit of happiness, and how to live a meaningful life. In their diversity, they remind us that the path to wisdom is not one-size-fits-all, and that different people may find different philosophical frameworks resonate with their unique experiences and outlooks on the world.